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however, a suffix normally classed as an adjective-forming will actually be
found to form a noun. This is because of a tendency, present in most
languages, for adjectives to be used as nouns. Thus, in English good is
generally an adjective, but in the sentence, “The good die young,” it is used
to mean “good people.
М.Ибрагимова
Способы формирования прилагательных с помощью
суффиксов
Резюме
Наряду с базами и префиксами в словообразовании часто
использовались суффиксы. Суффиксы - это элементы слова, прик-
епленные к концу базы, и, как и в случае с префиксами, большинство из
нас знакомо с ними в случае родных английских слов.
Суффиксы отличаются от префиксов тем, что они не только
изменяют значение базы, но также определяют часть речи
сформированного таким образом слова. В случае предыдущих
примеров прилагательные суффиксы были прикреплены к основаниям
существительных для составления прилагательных. Мы будем иметь
дело с тремя типами суффиксов, прилагательно-формирующими,
сущесвительно-образующими и глагольными формированиями. В
некоторых случаях, однако, суффикс, обычно классифицируемый как
формирование прилагательного, фактически будет найден, чтобы
сформировать существительное. Это связано с тенденцией, существущей
на большинстве языков, для того, чтобы прилагательные использовались
как существительные.
Rəyçi: Rəhimə Məmmədova
filologiya elmləri namizədi, dosent
Filologiya məsələləri, № 7, 2017
172
ÜLFAN MİRZƏZADƏ
Azərbaycan Dillər Universiteti
ulka.mirzazadeh@gmail.com
THE SCIENTIFIC – THEORETICAL IDEAS ABOUT
GENDERED METAPHORS
Açar sözlər: metafora, nitq, proqressiya
Key words: metaphor, speech, progression
Ключевые слова: метафора, речь, прогрессия
The language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which permit all
people in a given culture, or other people who have learnt the system of that
culture, communication or to interact. By speaking, we do not mean merely
uttering words through mouth. It means conveying the message through the
words of mouth. We use metaphors also. Hines’s works (1994, 1999) on
English metaphors about women appear to corroborate this statement. Using
Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) theoretical framework, Hines reveals that one
of the main conceptual metaphors underlying English linguistic expressions
used to describe or address women is woman as small animal (consider, e.g.
chick, canary, kitty). This and other metaphors applicable to women, such as
woman as dessert (consider metaphorical terms like tart, cheesecake,
crumpet), encode, and their usage supports, the dominant male-oriented
ideological positions in the discourse of Western, English-speaking society.
That is, these lexicalized metaphors show the consistent belittling of women
. However, the existence of such discriminatory metaphors about women is
no guarantee that comparable ones are not also available for men (consider
French man lapin “my little rabbit, sweetie” or un chaud lapin “a hot rabbit,
a stud” and Italian passero “little sparrow, dear one”). The aim of this paper
is to test the validity and ascertain the cross-linguistic applicability of
Hines’s findings. On the basis of data from French and Italian, we will
analyze metaphorical expressions that use animals as their source domain
applicable to both women and men, and others applicable to men only in
order to check whether women and men are denigrated in the same way and
to the same extent in the two languages. First we will outline Lakoff and
Johnson’s theoretical framework and summarize Hines’s findings regarding
the metaphor woman as small animal, then we will point out the analogies
established between women and/or men and animals as revealed by Italian
and French metaphorical expressions, and finally we will draw the
conclusions from our findings. 2. Framework and hypotheses. By examining
ordinary expressions used in everyday language, Lakoff and Johnson (1980)
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have demonstrated that people very often talk and reason about an entity or
event in terms of another, that is in a metaphorical way: they compare a
phenomenon they are more familiar metaphorik.de 05/2003 – Baider/
Gesuato, Masculinist Metaphors, Feminist research 8 with to one that they
want to cognitively appropriate, by establishing links between the two
domains of experience. Hines (1994, 1996a, 1996b, 1999, 2000) uses Lakoff
and Johnson’s theoretical framework to describe the metaphorical usage of
terms technically belonging to domains such as desserts (e.g. tart, sweetie
pie, honey) and animals (e.g. filly, chick, bunny) to talk to or about women.
Her analysis reveals a “rule-governed” pattern of “lexicalization”: once the
conceptual parameters have been established through cross-domain
mappings, the choice of terms from the source domain to be applied to the
target domain is not random, but motivated by semantic considerations,
among others; for instance, the category of dessert terms describing a woman
is shown to refer to juicy desserts that are made to be shared and/or sliced. In
addition to establishing a link between the emotional domain of desire and
the physical domains of food or animals, Hines also identifies a third
dimension in some of the conceptual metaphors examined, namely a social
practice, which embodies the metaphors in question in some way. We thus
suggest that Hines’s findings make it possible to conceptualize metaphor as a
three-dimensional structure which recalls the semiotic triangle of the sign
(Ogden and Richards 1923: 9-12), as in the following schematic set of
correspondences: the referent (the social practice) the signified (the
conceptual metaphor) the signifier (the linguistic expression). However,
Hines takes Lakoff and Johnson’s work further since she also unveils the
powerful social implications of these ‘masculinist metaphors’ (Hendricks
and Oliver 1999), that is she decodes and denounces the social practices
which embody, enforce and perpetuate the sexist concepts on which such
conceptual metaphors are grounded. Maybe most importantly, Hines’s
cognitive-linguistic work reveals the existence of a social imbalance , which
is to be identified in a discriminatory view of women, exemplified in the
English language, according to which women are more likely than men to be
viewed and treated as less than people. . This type of linguistic practice
appears to reflect “a paradigm of the definition of women in our culture”
(Penelope 1977: 316, quoted in Hines 1994: 300). Given these examples of
dissymmetry in language use which belittle or discriminate against the
female human being, it is to be expected that French and Italian too may
display what Hines’s works have revealed for English, namely that in the
domain of metaphors, women could be conceptualized and linguistically
represented in more trivial ways than men. On the basis of the above
observations, we propose to address two main issues: (I) to check the cross-
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