of the Arthurian story - thus obscuring the idea of Britishness with which the legend
had been imbued during the interwar period. As well as moving away from its earlier
Anglo-Celtic basis, as White revised his Arthuriad in the 1950s it also became a much
more ideologically conservative version of the Arthurian story. This chapter
concludes with a brief survey o f the numerous versions of the story to emerge in the
post-war years, the most important o f which was the trend for historical realism and
the triumph o f the novel as the dominant Arthurian medium. A brief conclusion
contains an overview o f the disappearance of the paradigmatic structure of the English
Arthurian tradition, along with a series of speculations on why the form of the legend
changed so dramatically in the twentieth century.
Chapter One
From ‘chaff and draff to national epic: Tennyson’s
Idylls o f the King and nineteenth-century Arthuriana
When Tennyson’s ‘Morte d’Arthur’ was first published in 1842 its mournful verses,
written ‘under the shock’ o f Arthur Hallam’s death, were offset by ‘The Epic’, a
poetic frame o f eighty-two lines which recounts a light-hearted Christmas Eve spent
among four male friends after a day occupied with skating, playing forfeits and
kissing girls beneath the mistletoe. During this evening it is mentioned that one of
those present, Everard Hall, had once written an epic on the Arthurian legend while at
university, most o f which has been destroyed.1 Cajoled by his friends to read the
surviving fragment o f this work, Hall initially refuses:
‘Nay, nay,’ said Hall,
‘Why take the style o f those heroic times?
For nature brings not back the Mastodon,
Nor we those times; and why should any man
Remodel models? these twelve books of mine
Were faint Homeric echoes, nothing worth,
Mere chaff and draff, much better burnt.’2
27
In time, Hall relents and reads them the surviving fragment o f his epic retelling of the
legend, the ‘Morte d ’Arthur’. By presenting his account o f the death o f Arthur as an
undergraduate poem, Tennyson was excusing its archaisms and Classical echoes; but
the poet was also noting the difficulties in refashioning the ancient story o f Arthur for
a nineteenth-century readership. Hall’s disparagement o f the poem reflects
Tennyson’s own struggle to compose an Arthurian epic: his early notebooks contain
several unrealised schemes for such a work and the question ‘why should any man /
Remodel models?’ is one that occupied the poet throughout his life.
But Everard Hall’s remarks are pertinent to many writers’ attempts to retell the
story of Arthur between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. Like Hall, Ben
Jonson, John Milton and John Dryden all planned, then set aside, their schemes to
produce an Arthurian epic, while some that were produced could fairly be described
as ‘mere chaff and d raff. Works such as John Dryden’s semi-opera, King Arthur
(1691), Richard Blackmore’s epic o f 1685 and 1697, as well as Fielding’s proto
pantomime, Tom Thumb (1730), are aberrations within the larger structure of
Arthurian literary production and were rarely commended by critics. They were
composed almost wholly in ignorance o f the literary tradition of the Middle Ages: the
Age of Reason spumed the ‘barbarism’ of the cultural heritage o f the Middle Ages in
favour o f the adopted Classics, while writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries had neither the knowledge nor the sympathetic means of reproducing the
Arthurian story effectively. After the Reformation, Arthur’s story, tainted with
Catholicism and the ‘barbarism’ o f the Middle Ages (and, after the English Civil War,
absolute monarchism), had drifted away from high culture and moved into the lower
domains of popular culture and political propaganda.
Here in this underworld Arthur existed for some two hundred years, before
emerging - first in antiquarian scholarship, then in increasingly popular forms of
creative literature - to command a position in Victorian culture that was so ubiquitous
that it rivalled even the Arthur o f Geoffrey’s twelfth-century Historia.4 The
forefathers o f Victorian medievalism - above all Thomas Warton and Walter Scott -
had produced a far more sympathetic readership for tales from the medieval past than
had existed since the Reformation. Scholars made the old romances available to new
readers, while poets and novelists were demonstrating how these tales could be made
relevant to contemporary culture.
Tennyson’s Idylls o f the King (1859-91), which incorporated the 1842 ‘Morte
d’Arthur’ in its conclusion, was the culmination and the greatest expression of
nineteenth-century Arthuriana. It synthesised many o f the discordant versions of the
medieval legend that had grown concurrently with the rediscovery o f the romances in
the late eighteenth century. Tennyson took the many antagonistic nationalist, political
and cultural uses o f the myth evident in the Romantic period, and replaced it with an
Anglocentric, liberal-bourgeois epic. Due to its remarkable popular and artistic
success Tennyson’s version o f the legend regulated Arthurian literary production
throughout the remainder o f the Victorian age. His Idylls effectively became the story
of Arthur, their influence apparent everywhere - in poetry, prose, drama, visual art,
architecture, music and scholarship. In this way the cultural production o f Matter of
Britain not only re-attained the eminent position that it had enjoyed in the Middle
Ages, it also regained the ‘shape’ that it had possessed between the twelfth and
sixteenth centuries, which was, as discussed in the introduction, essentially
paradigmatic. But before examining the Idylls's paradigmatic position in nineteenth-
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