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an action situation generating interactions and outcomes that are affected
by and affect a resource system, resource Units, Governance system, and
Users who affect and are affected by social, economic, and Political settings
and related ecosystems (see e. ostrom 2007, 2009). figure 6 provides an
overview of the highest tier of variables that exist in all field settings. the
highest tier can be unpacked several times when one is trying to analyze
specific questions related to sess in the field, but there is not enough time or
space to undertake a thorough unpacking in this article.
Figure 6. action situations embedded in broader social-ecological systems. source: adapted
from e. ostrom, 2007: 15182.
experimental researchers have reached a higher level of agreement about the
impact of microsituational variables on the incentives, levels of trust, and be-
havior of individuals in dilemma situations than exists among field research-
ers. few ses variables have a fully independent impact on the action situations
that participants face and their likely behavior. the ses variables that are
most important differ depending on which interactions (such as monitoring,
conflict, lobbying, self-organization) or longer-term outcomes (such as
overharvesting, regeneration of biodiversity, resilience of an ecological
system to human and nature-induced disturbances) one wishes to predict. a
set of ten variables have been identified across many field studies as impacting
the likelihood of users self-organizing in order to overcome a common-pool
resource dilemma (e. ostrom 2009; Basurto and ostrom 2009). these in-
clude: the size, productivity,/and predictability of the resource system; the
extent of mobility of the resource units; the existence of collective-choice
rules that the users may adopt authoritatively in order to change their own
operational rules; and four attributes of users (the number, the existence
of leadership/entrepreneurship, knowledge about the ses, and the impor-
tance of the ses to the users). linking the broader contextual variables and
microcontextual variables is one of the major tasks facing scientists who work
435
across disciplinary lines to understand how both social and ecological factors
affect human behavior.
11
8. coMPlexity and reforM
the economic and social sciences have significantly moved ahead over the
past five decades since scholars posited two optimal organizational forms,
two types of goods, and one model of the individual. extensive empirical
research documents the diversity of settings in which individuals solve
common-pool resource problems on their own, when these solutions are sus-
tainable over long periods of time, and how larger institutional arrangements
enhance or detract from the capabilities of individuals at smaller scales to
solve problems efficiently and sustainably (see, for example, agrawal and
Gibson 2001; Gibson et al. 2005; schlager and Blomquist 2008). While there
is not yet a single well-developed theory that explains all of the diverse out-
comes obtained in microsettings, such as the experimental lab, or broader
contextual settings of fisheries, irrigation systems, forests, lakes, and other
common-pool resources, considerable agreement does exist. nor do we have
a single normative theory of justice that can unambiguously be applied to all
settings (sen 2009).
Building trust in one another and developing institutional rules that are
well matched to the ecological systems being used are of central importance
for solving social dilemmas. the surprising but repeated finding that users
of resources that are in relatively good condition – or even improving – do
invest in various ways of monitoring one another relates to the core problem
of building trust.
Unfortunately, policy analysts, public officials, and scholars who still
apply simple mathematical models to the analysis of field settings have
not yet absorbed the central lessons articulated here. all too often a single
policy prescription – such as individual transferable Quotas (itQs) – is
recommended for all resources of a particular type, such as all fisheries.
While several itQ systems are working successfully, the time and effort
needed to tailor the broad theoretical concept of an itQ system into an
operational system in a particular location involves multiple years of hard
work by the fishers involved as well as the government officials (see clark
2006; yandle 2007; yandle and dewees 2003; eggertsson 1990).
the most important lesson for public policy analysis derived from the
intellectual journey i have outlined here is that humans have a more
complex motivational structure and more capability to solve social dilemmas
than posited in earlier rational-choice theory. designing institutions to force
(or nudge) entirely self-interested individuals to achieve better outcomes has
been the major goal posited by policy analysts for governments to accomplish
for much of the past half century. extensive empirical research leads me to
argue that instead, a core goal of public policy should be to facilitate the
11 see stewart (2009) for an important study that links size of group, acceptance of norms of cooperation, and
support of property rights in twenty-five mining camps in the american southwest.