432
rocators of costly cooperative efforts. empirical studies, however, confirm the
important role of trust in overcoming social dilemmas (rothstein 2005). as
illustrated in figure 5, the updated theoretical assumptions of learning and
norm-adopting individuals can be used as the foundation for understanding
how individuals may gain increased levels of trust in others, leading to more
cooperation and higher benefits with feedback mechanisms that reinforce
positive or negative learning. it is not only that individuals adopt norms but
also that the structure of the situation generates sufficient information about
the likely behavior of others to be trustworthy reciprocators who will bear
their share of the costs of overcoming a dilemma. thus, in some contexts,
one can move beyond the presumption that rational individuals are helpless
in overcoming social dilemma situations.
Figure 5. Microsituational and broader contexts of social dilemmas affect levels of trust
and cooperation. source: Poteete, Janssen, and ostrom, 2010: 227. © Princeton University
Press 2010. republished by permission of Princeton University Press.
C. The Microsituational Level of Analysis
asserting that context makes a difference in building or destroying trust
and reciprocity is not a sufficient theoretical answer to how and why
individuals sometimes solve and sometimes fail to solve dilemmas. individuals
interacting in a dilemma situation face two contexts: (1) a microcontext
related to the specific attributes of an action situation in which individuals
are directly interacting and (2) the broader context of the social-ecological
system in which groups of individuals make decisions. a major advantage of
studies conducted in an experimental lab or in field experiments is that the
researcher designs the microsetting in which the experiment is conducted.
thus, empirical results are growing (and are summarized in Poteete, Janssen,
and ostrom 2010) to establish that the following attributes of microsituations
affect the level of cooperation that participants achieve in social dilemma sett-
ings (including both public goods and common-pool resource dilemmas).
433
1. communication is feasible with the full set of participants. When
face-to-face communication is possible, participants use facial
expressions, physical actions, and the way that words are expressed to
judge the trustworthiness of the others involved.
2. reputations of participants are known. knowing the past history of
other participants, who may not be personally known prior to inter
action, increases the likelihood of cooperation.
3. high marginal per capita return (MPcr). When MPcr is high, each
participant can know that their own contributions make a bigger
difference than with low MPcr and that others are more likely to
recognize this relationship.
4. entry or exit capabilities. if participants can exit a situation at low
cost, this gives them an opportunity not to be a sucker and others can
recognize that cooperators may leave (and enter other situations) if
their cooperation is not reciprocated.
5. longer time horizon. Participants can anticipate that more could be
earned through cooperation over a long time period versus a short
time.
6. agreed-upon sanctioning capabilities. While external sanctions or
imposed sanctioning systems may reduce cooperation, when parti-
cipants themselves agree to a sanctioning system they frequently do
not need to use sanctions at a high volume and net benefits can be
improved substantially.
other microsituational variables are being tested in experiments around
the world. the central core of the findings is that when individuals face a
social dilemma in a microsetting, they are more likely to cooperate when
situational variables increase the likelihood of gaining trust that others will
reciprocate.
D. The Broader Context in the Field
individuals coping with common-pool resource dilemmas in the field are
also affected by a broader set of contextual variables related to the attributes
of the social-ecological system (ses) in which they are interacting. a group
of scholars in europe and the U.s. are currently working on the further
development of a framework that links the iad and its interactions and
outcomes at a micro level with a broader set of variables observed in the
field.
10
as illustrated in figure 6, one can think of individuals interacting in
10 scholars at the stockholm environment institute, the international institute for applied systems analysis,
delft University of technology, the University of Zurich, the nordland research institute of Bodø
University college, the Potsdam institute for climate impact research (Pik), humboldt University,
Marburg University, and the eU neWater project located at the University of osnabrück have had several
meetings in europe to begin plans for using a common framework (initially developed by e. ostrom
2007) to study a variety of resource systems. scholars at the Workshop in Bloomington and the center for
the study of institutional diversity at arizona state University will also participate in this effort. a core
problem identified by these scholars is the lack of cumulation across studies on diverse natural resource
systems as well as humanly engineered resources.