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9
ends told of Gorakhnāth, who we saw to figure in Sathya Sai Baba’s spiritual an-
cestry. And Sathya Sai Baba himself is often described as having appeared to
devotees in various human guises and sometimes to have taken animal forms also,
appearing as a monkey and as a dog
6
, for instance. Most importantly, however,
the motifs of an “entrance of the gods” and a propensity for taking multiple (espe-
cially animal) forms are obviously compatible with traditional avatar ideas—as
Noel Sheth (2002:100) writes, in various traditional works, there ‘are descents in
the form of animals, a body that is partly animal and partly human... there are also
avatāras in the shape of plants ...and of stones’.
In further regard to the latter of these motifs, whilst Elwood mentions above
the influence on avatar-like ideas of epic tales of the gods ‘acting meaningfully in
human affairs’, I would suggest that attention be paid to the potential contribution
of even earlier mythological traditions personifying natural phenomena and por-
traying a tendency of especially sky/storm or fertility deities to change themselves
into a variety of visible (and often animal or human) forms. The emergence of
avatar ideas in India was certainly influenced by the mythology of the “multiform”
storm-deity Indra
7
and his close associate Viṣṇu—another deity with atmospheric
associations. The first indications of the incarnational tendencies of these deities
come from the Vedas (c.1200-900
BCE
), which, as Parrinder (1970:15) writes, are
predominantly ‘hymns in praise of the gods’, wherein:
Indra, the national and storm god, is the favourite of all and he wanders about in
many forms. He assumed various forms for his manifestation, and was multiform by
his illusions. Indra assumed the form of a ram and a bull, and some of the other
Vedic gods appeared in similar transformations.
Soifer (1991:23) cites Ṛg-Veda 6:47.18 in this connection—in which the Sanskrit
word māyā appears as the means by which Indra’s ‘multiform’ [puru-rūpa] nature
is manifest. Parrinder glosses this term above as ‘illusions’, but it is perhaps better
translated here (after Soifer) as ‘powers’. In any case, as we will see (pp.202,243,
384), it plays an important role in later traditions associated with the avatars.
Significantly, as Parrinder (1970:16) notes, in the Vedas, ‘Vishnu is often associ-
ated with Indra’
8
, and Soifer (1991:22-23) adds that, though the ability to change
6
Kura Baker, Treasured Memories (Auckland: Sathya Sai Publications of New Zealand), p.19.
7
NB Indra is in many ways analogous to the Greek deity Zeus, who also exhibits avatar-like propen-
sities. Both take the form of a bull, are associated with eagles, and defeat major serpentine adver-
saries (see Hocart (1936:303-304) for a list of other parallels). Indeed, Soifer (1976:139) cites as
significant to the early history of avatar ideas ‘the shapes Indra assumed to achieve his ends, which
[ends] are often sexual in nature’—and this, I might note, provides another parallel with Zeus.
8
For details of this association see Soifer (1991), pp.20-23 and Dandekar (1941:95-111) ‘Viṣṇu in
1
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form is ‘not very common within the Vedic pantheon’, like Indra:
the Vedic Viṣṇu had this ability too, or at least had another form… Viṣṇu is said to
have two forms: one seen, one unseen. …significantly, …he takes on another form
[anyarūpaḥ] when in battle… [this] often being the immediate raison d’être for the
[later] descent[s] of …Viṣṇu.
Goldman (1995:84) points out that:
The adoption of a specific guise or change in form by itself is of little theological
significance in the world of Indian mythological literature. It is commonplace of
these texts and the culture of which they are a part that virtually all superhuman be-
ings—gods, demons, the great serpents, monkeys, etc., as well as highly spiritually
adept humans—are represented as kāmarūpins or beings capable of changing their
forms at will. This power is not correlated with moral capacity or fitness as an ob-
ject of devotion and thus has little bearing on the concept of avatāra.
There is some truth in this. “By itself”, the trait in question here is obviously not
sufficient to account for the avatar phenomenon—ideas of the avatar, like most
ideas, are undoubtedly multifactorial in their origins—but, it is perhaps a neces-
sary condition for their emergence. Moreover, taking up Goldman’s final point
here, I would argue that the earliest traditional antecedents of the avatars them-
selves show little correlation with moral capacity or fitness for devotion—they are
more of the order of displays of (super)natural power, and this is something that
all of the forms listed by him do have in common.
In any case, as Soifer (1991:23) goes on to write, it is significant that Viṣṇu
takes on several of Indra’s attributes ‘as the latter’s abilities (and popularity) de-
cline’
9
, and Parrinder (1970:16) notes yet other features that made the vedic Viṣṇu
well suited to take on his later role as the principle god associated with avatars:
his chief activity in the Vedas consisted in taking three giant strides across the uni-
verse, the three realms of earth, air and heaven. Originally Vishnu may have per-
sonified the sun, passing through the three realms. He is compared to a dread beast
haunting the mountains, or a wide-pacing bull. But all beings dwell in Vishnu’s
three wide strides, and his worshippers seek to attain to his ‘dear domain’, which is a
‘well of mead’ (madhu), the ‘highest step (pada) of Vishnu’.
Here then, in addition to the obvious atmospheric and solar connotations, is a por-
trayal of an omnipresent yet personified deity, and, as Soifer (1991:24) observes,
the strains of devotion towards such for otherworldly ends (most vedic hymns in-
voke the gods for this-worldly benefits). As we will see, these are key features of
some of the later avatar traditions and find echoes in the ideas of Sathya Sai Baba.
the Veda’ in P.V. Kane Commemorative Volume (Poona) [cited by Dandekar (1976), p.30,n28].
9
On Indra’s “decline” see: Hiltebeitel (1990), p.229ff. and Soifer (1976), pp.139-140.