S
S
A
A
T
T
H
H
Y
Y
A
A
S
S
A
A
I
I
B
B
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
S
S
A
A
V
V
A
A
T
T
A
A
R
R
1
1
2
2
7
7
3. A
NCIENT
A
NTECEDENTS
Unheralded by fire and dust, by swooping gale or swallowing floods, the amoeba,
in process of time, by the sheer force of the Life principle it embodied, blossomed
into goodness and strength of character, into art and music, into song and dance, into
scholarship and Sadhana and martyrdom, into sainthood and even Avathars of Godhead!
1
“It was a dark and stormy night….” True to his caste background (outlined ear-
lier) Sathya Sai Baba has something of a penchant for dramatization, and the
above passage exemplifies this. Also interesting is the fact that he portrays avatars
as the culmination of an evolutionary process—clearly, there are modern influ-
ences at work here—I will refer back to this passage in this connection in Chapter
5 (see p.318). But his purpose in presenting this view is far removed from my
own concerns in considering the evolution of avatar ideas—he goes on to use the
above as an allegory to encourage his devotees to put their faith in the apparently
insignificant (amoeba-like) practice of meditation as opposed to the words of ‘loud
and noisy men’, who are but a ‘passing phase’ (like the primeval storms). Sathya
Sai Baba, as we have often seen to be the case, is keen to make an ethical and
spiritual point, whereas my main concern in this chapter is to trace the develop-
ment of traditional avatar ideas from their earliest determinable origins
2
to their
more-or-less fully-formed flourishings in ancient Sanskrit literature—and not for
(merely) dramatic purposes, but (hopefully) to derive some insight thereby into
Sathya Sai Baba’s interpretations of them.
Robert Elwood (1987:ix-x), in a foreword to Daniel Bassuk’s (1987b) book, pro-
vides some suggestions as to the broader historical context that likely stimulated
the formation the first avatar-like concepts:
The doctrine of avatar and incarnation may have ultimate roots in the paleolithic
shaman in divine-possession trance, giving human voice to the gods. But its classic
expression seems to be rooted in what the philosopher Karl Jaspers has called the
Axial Age. This flexibly-defined era of several centuries beginning around the 6
th
century BCE marks the crucial transition of the human way of being in the world
from the prehistoric or that of the archaic agricultural empires to a fresh way in
which the individual human, and awareness of human history, comes into focus…
there appeared in China Confucius and Lao-tzu, in India the Buddha and Mahavira,
in Iran Zoroaster, in Judaea Isaiah and Jeremiah… in Greece a little later Socrates
and Plato.
1
Sathya Sai Baba, DV 24—cf. Sathya Sai Baba (18-12-1966) S6 43:216
2
The term ‘origins’ is perhaps a controversial one, but the plurals here are significant. I do not
mean to imply any absolute origin; this is a manner of speaking, not a philosophical statement—and
it is one that even Foucault would seem to allow (see, e.g., Deal and Beal, 2004, p.94).
1
1
2
2
8
8
3
3
.
.
A
A
N
N
C
C
I
I
E
E
N
N
T
T
A
A
N
N
T
T
E
E
C
C
E
E
D
D
E
E
N
N
T
T
S
S
Several factors lay behind this era: the discovery or increased use of writing, in-
creased division of labour within society, the stimulus of new intercultural contacts,
and on a deeper level, the discovery of history, a slowly dawning awareness that
human time is linear, that things change and do not change back…. [T]his realiza-
tion gives rise… to what Mircea Eliade has called the ‘terror of history’, demanding
to be countered by paradigms and controls. Thus the religions of this era made their
histories into epics in which God or the gods were acting meaningfully in human af-
fairs. They pointed to eschatological consummations of history… they devised im-
mense cycles overriding the linear movement of experienced time, they sought the
high ground of mystical oneness with an Absolute before which all time is contin-
gent or illusory….
[T]he Axial Age… produce[d] that most elite group of all human elites, the half-
dozen or so men who have been founders of the great religions…. Inevitably, some
have been regarded in faith as Avatars or incarnations of the Divine.
I have already noted something of the influence of traditional ideas of ‘oneness
with an Absolute’ upon Sathya Sai Baba and other similar figures, and we will see
more of this as we progress. Furthermore, as we will also see, a seemingly incon-
gruous combination of eschatology and cyclical chronology is foundational to some
of the avatar traditions—and again is reflected in Sathya Sai Baba’s teachings.
Elwood’s invocation of the Axial Age as the stimulus for these ideas is perhaps
plausible
3
, but a number of factors that he omits—or at least omits to elaborate
upon—prove to be equally important, and date from well prior to this time
4
.
Thus, whilst he does not expand upon his hint as to the possibility of shamanic in-
fluences on avatar ideas, there is certainly a resonance between some specific In-
dian instances of these and the avatar traditions. Eliade (1958:102,312) notes that
the Ṛg-Veda (c. 12
th
century
BCE
), the earliest linguistic record of Indian religious
ideas, describes a shamanic figure (a ‘muni’, or “ecstatic”) ‘into whom “the gods
enter”’ [devāso avikṣata]
5
, and sees general traditional beliefs in the ability of
shamans to assume various, but especially animal, forms, as being reflected in leg-
3
E.g., Soifer (1976:130) concludes that ‘there is little doubt’ that ideas from Buddhism and Jainism
influenced ideas of the avatar (and vice versa): ‘The early Buddhist Jatakas [sic] record both the
idea of previous Buddhas who in earlier cosmic eras came to earth to teach men the Path.... Jainism,
too, posited saviour figures, tīrthaṃkaras, who came to earth at low ebb of the cycle of ascendancy
and deterioration, to preach the Law [dharma]... at critical junctures in time to raise civilization to
the next higher stage, as the avatāra appears to reinstate the waning dharma’ (cf. p.195 below).
4
NB J.C.Heesterman (1985:95ff.), however, sees the vedic tradition itself—to which I will make
much reference here—especially the sacrifice (see 3.2 below), as an ‘axial [age] breakthrough’.
5
Ṛg-Veda 10:136. See Bibliography below for sources of this and my subsequent citations of Sanskrit
texts. NB Swallow (1982:130-131), also, cites Eliade’s reference to this passage as testifying to po-
tential precursors of Sathya Sai Baba—especially in respect to his ‘magical powers’, including ‘magi-
cal flight’. Interestingly, she notes that these figures were ‘popularly associated with sexual license’.