Introduction
[ xxix ]
fascism gained the strength to seize power and break with both laissez-
faire and democracy.
19
Polanyi's thesis of the double movement contrasts strongly with
both market liberalism and orthodox Marxism in the range of possi-
bilities that are imagined at any particular moment. Both market lib-
eralism and Marxism argue that societies have only two real choices:
there can be market capitalism or socialism. Although they have op-
posing preferences, the two positions agree in excluding any other al-
ternatives. Polanyi, in contrast, insists that free market capitalism is
not a real choice; it is only a Utopian vision. Moreover, in chapter 19 he
defines socialism as "the tendency inherent in an industrial civiliza-
tion to transcend the self-regulating market by consciously subordi-
nating it to a democratic society." This definition allows for a continu-
ing role for markets within socialist societies. Polanyi suggests that
there are different possibilities available at any historical moment,
since markets can be embedded in many different ways. To be sure,
some of these forms will be more efficient in their ability to expand
output and foster innovation, and some will be more "socialist" in
subordinating the market to democratic direction, but Polanyi im-
plies that alternatives that are both efficient and democratic were
available both in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
20
THE CENTRALITY OF THE GLOBAL REGIME
Yet Polanyi is far too sophisticated a thinker to imagine that indi-
vidual countries are free to choose the particular way in which they
want to reconcile the two sides of the double movement. On the con-
trary, Polanyi's argument is relevant to the current global situation
precisely because he places the rules governing the world economy at
the center of his framework. His argument about the rise of fascism in
the interwar period pivots on the role of the international gold stan-
19. Polanyi addresses fascism in "The Essence of Fascism" in J. Lewis, K. Polanyi,
andD. K. Kitchin, eds.,
Christianity and the Social Revolution (London: Gollanz, 1935),
PP- 359-94-
20. Polanyi inspired a school of thought that flowered in the 1980s and 1990s that
has analyzed the "varieties of capitalism," showing the very significant differences in
the ways that markets are embedded in the United States as compared with France,
Germany, Japan, and other nations. See Rogers Hollingsworth and Robert Boyer, eds.,
Contemporary Capitalism: The Embeddedness of Institutions (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1997); and Colin Crouch and Wolfgang Streeck,
Political Economy of
Modern Capitalism: Mapping Convergence and Diversity (Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage,
1997)-