Introduction
[ XXXV ]
divert discontent by scapegoating internal or external enemies. This is
how the Utopian vision of neoliberals leads not to peace but to intensi-
fied conflict. In many parts of Africa, for example, the devastating
effects of structural adjustment policies have disintegrated societies
and produced famine and civil war. Elsewhere, the post-Cold War
period has seen the emergence of militantly nationalist regimes
with aggressive intentions toward neighbors and their own ethnic
minorities.
28
Furthermore, in every corner of the globe militant
movements—often intermixed with religious fundamentalism—are
poised to take advantage of the economic and social shocks of global-
ization. If Polanyi is right, these signs of disorder are harbingers of
even more dangerous circumstances in the future.
Democratic Alternatives
Although he wrote
The Great Transformation during World War
II, Polanyi remained optimistic about the future; he thought the cycle
of international conflict could be broken. The key step was to overturn
the belief that social life should be subordinated to the market mecha-
nism. Once free of this "obsolete market mentality," the path would be
open to subordinate both national economies and the global economy
to democratic politics.
29
Polanyi saw Roosevelt's New Deal as a model
of these future possibilities. Roosevelt's reforms meant that the U.S.
economy continued to be organized around markets and market ac-
tivity, but a new set of regulatory mechanisms now made it possible to
buffer both human beings and nature from the pressures of market
forces.
30
Through democratic politics, people decided that the elderly
should be protected from the need to earn income through Social Se-
curity. Similarly, democratic politics expanded the rights of working
people to form effective unions through the National Labor Relations
Act. Polanyi saw these initiatives as the start of a process by which soci-
28. For an argument that many recent examples of global turmoil can be traced to
the international economic regime, see Michel Cossudovsky,
The Globalisation of Pov-
erty: Impacts of IMF and World Bank Reforms (Penang, Malaysia: Third World Net-
work, 1997).
29. "Obsolete Market Mentality" is the title that Polanyi gave to an important 1947
essay that is reprinted in Dalton,
Primitive, Archaic, and Modern Economies.
30. The New Deal actually did little to protect the environment. Nevertheless,
when environmentalists later gained the political strength to win reforms, agencies
such as the Environmental Protection Agency followed the New Deal's regulatory
model.