74
intending to build an equally large church in
Iceland, and predicts that the wood given to
Þorkell will not be used to build it. Þorkell
returns to Iceland, only to drown in
Breiðafjǫrðr on his way to his farm at Helgafell
[‘Holy Mountain’] (stanza 6). Thus, two
prophecies, the one of the king and the one of
Guðrún’s dream, come true.
Guðrún then becomes a hermit nun at
Helgafell, the first nun in Iceland, and the saga
concludes with her death by natural causes,
having famously confessed to her son Bolli
Bollason:
Þeim var ek verst er ek unni mest
[‘To him I was worst whom I loved most’]
(
Laxdæla saga, ch. 78).
Concerning This Edition of the Text
General Issues
The text of
Vísur uppá Laxdæla sǫgu is written
in two columns, with each line featuring a
single line of a stanza. The stanzas are
numbered and will be referenced by stanza
number and line number (e.g. 3.4 indicates line
4 of stanza 3).
This edition reproduces the text diplo-
matically and as an Old Norse (ON)
normalized text. This is quite a considerable
so-called
fyrning [‘deliberate archaization’; lit.
‘ancienting’]. Late manuscripts are often used
as sources especially for early ON texts;
fyrning is a term used in editing practice when
spellings, particularly Modern Icelandic (MI)
spellings, of such manuscripts are replaced
with standardized ON.
8
The
fyrning here is
especially considerable for a text that was
reliably composed in post-medieval times, and
that relies, at times, on 18
th
-century
pronunciation for rhymes, as well as on
linguistic forms not found in ON (see
comments to stanza 3 below). Nevertheless,
we feel that this
fyrning is warranted by the fact
that the stanzas constitute an attempt to
emulate ON
dróttkvætt and concern characters
from a famous ON text.
In the analysis, we quite consciously avoid
addressing the issue of whether
dróttkvætt
poetry ‘survived’ past the traditional cut-off
point of the 14
th
century of the classic editions
of the corpus, such as Finnur Jónsson’s
Den
norsk-islandske Skjaldedigtning (
Skj). We also
avoid the question of whether
dróttkvætt (or
dróttkvætt-like) poetry composed past that
point is ‘authentic’ or not. However, we use the
relatively uncontroversial terms of classical
and post-classical
dróttkvætt. Although a full
discussion of these issues is beyond the scope
of this paper, it is necessary to offer some
comment on them in order to frame
Tyrfingur’s composition in relation to his
knowledge of the
dróttkvætt metre and
associated skaldic diction.
Classical
dróttkvætt is understood as the
corpus of
Skj (subsequently analysed in
Meissner 1921); the full corpus of post-
classical
dróttkvætt is still to be established,
and the research into it is currently unfolding
(see e.g. Haukur Þorgeirsson 2014; Ragnar
Ingi Aðalsteinsson 2014;
Vísnabók Guðbrands
2000). On the surface, it appears unlikely that
dróttkvætt survived in the post-classical period
as a full-fledged oral tradition. Scholars tend to
agree that
drápur, the praise poems for kings,
were the core genre of the tradition, yet this key
ecological niche disappeared in the 14
th
century (Haukur Þorgeirsson 2014: 146) and
was no longer extant by the time our text was
composed. Yet, despite this loss, there were
poems composed past that point which are
hardly distinguishable from the classic
dróttkvætt of
Skj, such as the 16
th
-century
Heimsósómi [‘Sins of the World’] (on which
see Haukur Þorgeirsson 2014). It is thus quite
likely that
dróttkvætt poetry survived as an
aural tradition and was still being read aloud,
inter alia from manuscript pages, long past the
above-mentioned cut-off point (Frog &
Sverdlov 2016: 9). One piece of evidence for
this is the sheer number and temporal
distribution of manuscripts of the so-called
Laufás Edda of Magnúss Óláfsson (ca. 1573–
1636), who re-arranged Snorri Stuluson’s
Edda in a way not too unlike the much later
scholarly work by Rudolf Meissner (1921):
there are many dozens of these manuscripts,
from the early 17
th
-century original to copies
from the early second half of the 19
th
century
(
Laufás Edda,
39–155). The wide distribution
and apparent accessibility of
Laufás Edda,
with its explanations of the nature of the metre
and its lists of kennings and heitis, should have
ensured the readabilty of the old
dróttkvætt
poetry and could have assisted in composition
of texts in imitation of it. In the oft-repeated
words of Matthew James Driscoll of
Den
75
Arnamagnæanske Samling in Copenhagen: “in
Iceland, the Middle Ages end in 1922”, the
year that the “last great Icelandic scribe”,
Magnús Jónsson í Tjaldanesi, died (Driscoll
2012). This statement implies a period of
continuity far longer than what is the case in
other traditions.
The present paper and edition are thus meant
as a contribution to this ongoing discussion. In
this light, the present authors are of the opinion
that if, ultimately, a determination of the nature
and degree of continuity between classical
(medieval) and post-classical (post-medieval)
dróttkvætt is
to be made,
it must rely inter alia
on comparison of post-classical texts that look
like
dróttkvætt with the classical exponents of
the
metre to be found in Skj and
its developing
successor
Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian
Middle Ages, notwithstanding the considerable
differences in the age of
composition and even
in language (i.e. essentially MI vs. ON), even
though the influence of later poetic tradition of
rímur is clearly there. Not to be underestimated
is also the fact that, for scholars from outside
the field of post-medieval Icelandic literature,
and even more so for general readers, the main
(if not the only) point of interest in these
stanzas would be exactly their relations to
classical
dróttkvætt poetry, one of the genres
that rightfully made ON literature world-
famous. These considerations are in the
background of the present paper.
Manuscript Spelling
The spelling of the manuscript is quite typical
for Icelandic of the time:
y and
e are used
where
i is required and vice versa (1.2
ÿtte for
ýtti, 5.2.
slisa for
slysa);
ð and
d are not
regularly distinguished and
þ is used instead of
ð (1.1
heiþúrs for
heiðrs, 2.2
dÿgd for
dygð).
An interesting feature is the regular use of
double acute accent to mark the vowels
a,
o
and
u that were long in ON (1.1
trőþa for ON
tróða, 3.2
kla̋ra for ON
klára, 3.6
trű for ON
trú, and the preposition
á [‘on’] is always
spelled
a̋). The same does not happen for
y and
i: all
ys in the text are spelled with an umlaut
sign above, and this
ÿ stands for all four
original vowels,
y,
i,
ý,
í (1.2
ÿtte for ON
ýtti
and 2.3
frÿþúr for
fríðr, 2.4
bÿng for
bing,
5.7
ÿfrinn for
yfrinn, also
the preposition í [‘in’]
is
always spelled
i). When the single acute accent
is used, it is placed over
both short vowels and
epenthetic
-u-’s (so redundant in these cases,
see examples above, but still useful as a
reading aid, helping to distinguish handwritten
u from
n) and several times over the result of
u-umlaut of
a (6.1
mióg for
mjǫk; this feature
is well-known and such an
ó is considered to
be a graphemic variant of
ǫ). The single acute
accent is never put on long vowels, the only
exception being 6.1
Ejúlfs for
Eyjólfs (see
above for epenthetic
-u-’s). The horizontal
line, as usual, denotes a nasal consonant, but
sometimes is put over an
n or
m already spelled
out where no doubling is required (7.5
húgfúllan̈̄ for acc. sg.
hugfullan); again, this
helps to distinguish between handwritten
u and
n. The capital letters and commas, as well as
other features in the diplomatic text (tall
s etc.)
are those of the manuscript, as can be observed
in the accompanying image; the only visual
difference is the use of regular
d instead of
uncrossed
ð. The only occurrence of the
Tironian
et sign is rendered by italicized MI
og. The number 7, in superscript and in-line,
stands for a variant of
r used by the scribe: it is
r
rotunda.
Its
manuscript
shape
is
indistinguishable from letter
z, but the use of
the latter would have been counterintuitive.
Metre, Diction, and Other Poetic Features
The text of the stanzas is in 18
th
-century
Icelandic but aims to imitate the rules of ON
dróttkvætt. It largely succeeds in doing so, at
times to spectacular effect. However, there are
many deviations of various kinds. There are
cases where metrical rules are broken; cases
when the poet stretches the limits of what is
unattested but theoretically possible in
classical
dróttkvætt; and cases where the poet
uses what is unmistakably an innovation from
the point of view of classical metre, yet such
that it is better regarded as a ‘natural’ result of
its actual (if one assumes full-fledged
dróttkvætt tradition did survive in post-
medieval times), or theoretically possible (if
one assumes it did not), evolution. In this
section, we discuss the most interesting of such
features; for interpretations of individual
words, see the commentary on the text.
The Close
One feature that clearly marks this text as a late
imitation is the filling of the close. In classical
dróttkvætt, each line (the ON term is
vísu-orð