Sammlungspolitik
of the
late 1890s right through the changing governments up to the First World War.
Clearly a more differentiated picture of the instabilities of Imperial Germany will
have to be developed, encompassing a wide range of factors. Equally clearly,
however, there were certain structural features of the sociopolitical system which
played a key role in the way it was eventually to collapse.
CULTURE IN IMPERIAL GERMANY
The cultural life of Imperial Germany contained a range of diverse, often
conflicting strands. On the one hand was the rather pompous, heavy ‘official’
culture: the culture of a recently unified society seeking to represent its
aspirations towards great power status not only in the political sphere, but also
symbolically, through the erection of equestrian statues of national heroes, and
the construction of grandiose buildings, furnished with large, solid furniture and
heavy curtains. The mixture of sentimentality and heroism of this culture was
counterposed by more critical reactions to modern life from a variety of
perspectives. Realist novelists elucidated the tensions and strains behind the
pompous façades of bourgeois life: Theodor Fontane revealed personal strains
and family crises behind social conventions in a changing society, while Thomas
Mann’s early novel
Buddenbrooks
chronicled the degeneration of a north
German bourgeois family over the generations. Thomas Mann captured the
complex changes in German social and economic life from 1835 to the late
1870s; and, while firmly anchored in the techniques of the nineteenth-century
novel,
Buddenbrooks
prefigured in the figure of the last male Buddenbrook,
Hanno, the repudiations of the practical world so common in the twentieth-
century novel. Mann’s work, spanning the period right through to the Third
Reich, provided both a powerful commentary on, and a reflection of, the
tensions of an artistic existence in Imperial and post-1918 Germany. Dramatists
such as Hauptmann uncovered the tragic sides of human existence in materialist
society. Not only imaginative writers, but also social thinkers, explored the
implications for personality and family life of the bundle of changes that were
occurring, in the shift from what was seen as an ‘organic’, traditional
‘community’ to a more alienating, individualistic ‘society’ (the distinction
between
Gemeinschaft
and
Gesellschaft
). There was particular fascination with
the implications of rootless life in the modern city. There were critical
movements too in the visual arts. Official conceptions of acceptable art were
challenged by the ‘secessionist’ movement, with the development in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth century of new approaches such as impressionism
and expressionism. Even in architecture and interior design, the more elegant
Jugendstil
style lightened the ornate pomposity of the prevailing dominant
styles. Much of what later came to be known as ‘Weimar culture’ had its origins
in pre-war Germany, particularly in changes occurring around the turn of the
century.
A similar diversity characterised leisure pursuits and popular culture. On the
one hand, many members of the bourgeoisie adopted certain aristocratic manners
and customs, aspiring to join the reserve officer corps of the army and to
achieve, if at all possible, the status mark of a duelling scar (although notions
such as a ‘feudalisation of the bourgeoisie’ are probably overstated). On the
other hand, the constraints and repressions of a stuffy bourgeois existence were
literally thrown off in the youth movement. Members of the
Wandervögel
(‘wandering birds’) donned loose and comfortable casual clothing and set off for
hiking and camping trips through the countryside, singing songs and attempting
to adopt as natural a life style as possible. While critical of establishment politics
(and particularly dismissive of parliamentary party politics) and of the
established education system, these groups tended to be both strongly
nationalistic and simultaneously anti-materialist and anti-semitic, since Jews
were identified with crass money-making in modern society. The
Wandervögel
movement was in general middle-class and anti-Marxist, thus also standing in
contrast to working-class and SPD forms of youth culture.
The mid-nineteenth century had been characterised by a certain positivism in
outlook, a widespread faith in scientific laws and the inevitability of progress,
evident for example in Darwinist evolutionary theories. Even Marxist theory was
stamped by peculiarly nineteenth-century assumptions about historical laws of
society and social progress. New uncertainties were evident in later nineteenth
and early twentieth-century thinking. The writings of Nietzsche had a long-term
and ambiguous impact, with direct influence on scholars such as Weber, and
more tortuous misinterpretations by National Socialist ‘theorists’. The music-
dramas of Richard Wagner – still reverberating with the impulse of earlier
nineteenth-century Romanticism – revived mediaeval topics (the
Meistersinger
,
the
Ring
) to explore some of the profoundest tensions of nineteenth-century
society. Wagner’s concern with the mediaeval heritage was of course also
appropriated and adapted to suit changed concerns in Nazi Germany. A new
cultural pessimism, as well as a concern for the non-rational, the repressed and
the unconscious, began to permeate social thought around the turn of the century.
In Vienna, Sigmund Freud was working out theories of personality and
techniques of psychoanalysis that were to have a profound impact on the ways in
which twentieth-century Europeans and Americans think about their lives.
Notions such as repression, neurosis, Freudian slip, Oedipus complex, have
entered everyday language. In social and political thought, scholars such as
Simmel, Tönnies and Troeltsch developed concepts and theories through which
to grasp the radical changes they observed in contemporary society. The
encyclopaedic works of Max Weber represented an extraordinary attempt to
explore and explain the uniquely dynamic paths of western history, in
comparison with patterns of society and culture in other areas of the world. And
in attempting, as one commentator has put it, to bridge the gap between
scientific positivism and a more historicist idealism, in elaborating
generalisations which allowed space for human meanings and motivations,
Weber certainly produced a more modern form of social theory than the
ambiguous writings of Marx, which failed to resolve the tensions between
historical laws and human action. To encompass and account for patterns of
world history, as well as to explore in detail the dynamics of his own society,
Weber developed a set of social and political concepts and an explicit
methodology of analysis and comparison which, for all the criticisms that have
subsequently been made of it, has arguably never been surpassed in its range,
erudition and richness of suggestion.
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