Plate 32.
A peasant wedding in Bad Tölz, Bavaria. The culture and life-style of these peasants was very
far from what has come to be known as ‘Weimar culture’.
In the cultural sphere, Weimar witnessed great intellectual ferment and
artistic creativity: ‘Weimar culture’ achieved a renown reverberating far beyond
its own time and place. In the natural sciences, in psychology and
psychoanalysis, in social theory, new ideas were discussed and developed. In
architecture, the Bauhaus school of Walter Gropius combined aesthetic and
utilitarian criteria to produce styles of architecture, interior design and furniture
still prevalent three-quarters of a century later. In music, the experimental work
of Schönberg achieved international renown, while imported ‘decadent’
American jazz music caught on among certain circles and was wildly criticised
by others. In prose and poetry, works by Thomas and Heinrich Mann, Erich
K¨astner, Rainer Maria Rilke, Stefan George, and others attained the status of
classics; in drama, Bertolt Brecht – frequently in fruitful conjunction with the
composer Kurt Weill – made brilliant contributions, while there were equally
important movements in the field of modern art, associated with such schools as
‘Der blaue Reiter’, ‘Die Brücke’, expressionism, Dada, cubism and futurism. In
a range of ways and through a variety of media, Weimar artists and intellectuals
analysed, exposed, and commented on their own society, from the realistic
portrayal of violence in late Weimar Berlin by Alfred Döblin to the bitter
caricatures of Weimar society in the works of Georg Grosz or K¨athe Kollwitz,
or the posters of John Heartfield and the cartoons about Berlin low society of
Heinrich Zille. The 1920s were also an era of expansion and commercialisation
of popular culture, particularly with the spread of cinemas, showing silent films
until the introduction of sound reels in 1929, and the expanding ownership of
radios. No real political use was made of the radio until 1932, when Papen
prepared the ground for the Nazis’ subsequent effective hi-jacking of the
medium as an instrument of propaganda. And despite obviously left-wing
tendencies among much (though not all) of ‘high-brow’ culture, much popular
culture – as in war films which did not attain the status of
All Quiet on the
Western Front
– remained nationalist and what is perhaps best described in terms
of the German word
kitsch.
A perceived ‘decadence’ in Weimar culture and life
styles – including a supposed laxity of morals, symbolised in new, short, boyish
hair-styles for women, the smoking of cigarettes and use of contraceptives –
provoked intense and hostile criticism on the part of conservatives, particularly
in the Protestant establishment, as well as from Catholic quarters. From the left,
the evils of modern capitalism and the miseries of the working classes attracted
bitter attacks. About the only valid generalisation that can be made about the
explosive currents of creativity that have come to be known as ‘Weimar culture’
is that little of it served to sustain the Republic in principle: while the left
attacked the social inequalities of modern industrial capitalist society, the right
attacked the decadence and social-moral disintegration of modern mass
democracy. An isolated – and belated – exception was Thomas Mann, who
jettisoned his ‘apolitical’ conservatism of 1918 to speak out in defence of the
Republic. But one must conclude that despite the undoubted achievements of
Weimar artists and intellectuals, the impact of Weimar culture was deeply
divisive and politically ambiguous.
In one further area, too, the Weimar compromise proved ambiguous, and
ultimately fatally so. This was in the area of social compromise evident in the
earliest days of the Republic in November 1918. At a time of weakness, in the
uncertainties of the revolutionary days, employers had made concessions to
representatives of organised labour. Agreements had been reached on wages, on
conditions of work and the eight-hour day, and on a form of corporatism
embodied in the
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