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4 THEORY OF TRANSLATION
The chapter "Theory of translation" is divided into four sub-chapters.
Firstly, the methods and types of translation are discussed in general. Secondly, the
second sub-chapter is dedicated especially to equivalent effect, since this is supposed
to be a theoretical background for the following translation analysis. Thirdly,
translation criticism is discussed. Finally, there is a sub-chapter pointed to translating
dialect. The terminology used in this chapter is based on Peter Newmark's theory of
translation.
4.1 Methods of translation
A good translation has to fulfil lots of requirements; the most
important of them being that a good translation should not be perceived as a
translation but as an original work created in the certain language. Therefore, a
quality translation should follow at least three basic criteria:
be natural in the target language
the meaning should be identical; the impact of the translation
should be the same as the impact of the original text
the translation should preserve dynamics of the original text
Following these criteria guarantees that the target language is not
deformed according to the language of the original. Furthermore, equivalence on
information, stylistic and hypersyntactic level is considered obviousness. (Knittlová
et al. 15)
There exist several types of translations. According to their
orientation, we distinguish two main types: form-based translations which is aimed
at the form of the original text and meaning-based translations which is oriented on
trasfering the meaning of original. (Knittlová et al. 16) Peter Newmark describes the
meaning-based translation as kind of free with emphasis on target language, while
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the form-based one is more literal and emphasizes source language (45). The
question whether to translate literally of freely has always been the central problem
of translating. The first kind was favorized untill the turn of 19
th
century. Later, as a
consequence of cultural anthropology studies (emphasizing the fact that the language
is the product of culture and linguistics barriers are insuperable), the second
approach started gained support claiming that translation was impossible and it must
be as literal as possible (Newmark 45).
The types of translation are closely connected with methods of
translation. According to Newmark, there are eight translation methods: word-for-
word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation,
adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation.
Out of these eight, the first four belong to the type with source language emphasis.
On the other hand, the other four rank among the type with target language emphasis
(45). The methods are briefly described one by one in the following paragraphs.
Word-for-word translation: also marked as interlinear translation.
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This kind of translation does not respect grammatical system of the target language,
though is able to express every single grammatical unit of source language through
respective units (Knittlová et al. 16). Moreover, it preservers word order of the
source language and the words are translated by their most common meanings with
no attention paid to context. Even cultural words are translated literally. Therefore,
word-for-word translation is used either to understand mechanics of the source
language or to construe a difficult text as a pretranslation process (Newmark 46).
Nevertheless, this kind of translation can be comprehensible if we translate two
closely related languages since their grammatical structures and rules may be very
similar or even identical (Knittlová et al. 16).
Literal translation: sometimes described as "slavish" (Knittlová et al.
17). The grammatical structures of the source language are converted to the nearest
equivalents in the target language. However, lexical words are translated out of
context (Newmark 46). The resulting text is usually grammatically correct and
natural, while choice and connection of lexical units is strange (Knittlová et al. 17).
8 e.g. in Knittlová et al.
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Faithful translation: reproduces the precise contextual meaning of
the original text while obeying the grammatical rules of the target language. Unlike
the previous two, faithful translation transfers cultural words and also preserves the
degree of grammatical and lexical deviation from norms of the source language.
Generally, it aims to be absolutely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of
the original writer (Newmark 46).
Semantic translation: is based on the same idea as faithful
translation but in addition it takes more account of the aesthetic value of the source
language text and sometimes compromises on meaning. While faithful translation is
uncompromising and dogmatic, the other one is more flexible and admits the creative
exception to absolute fidelity (Newmark 46).
Adaptation: is recognized as the freest form of translation and it is
used primarily for theatre plays and poetry. Adaptation preserves the themes,
characters and plots, but the culture of the source language is converted to the target
language culture and the text is rewritten (Newmark 46).
Free translation: usually a paraphrase which is much longer than the
original reproducing the matter without the manner, or the content without the form
of the original text. According to Newmark it is not translation at all (47).
Idiomatic translation: this is a method which reproduces the
message of the original but at the same time it changes important nuances of
meaning. This is caused by using colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist
in the original (Newmark 47).
Communicative translation: is able to transfer the contextual
meaning of the original in a way that content and language are acceptable and
comprehensible for to the reader (Newmark 47).
Considering these methods more closely, Peter Newmark says:
"Commenting on these methods, I should first say that only semantic and
communicative translation fulfil the two main aims of translation, which are first,
accuracy and second, economy. (A semantic translation is more likely to be
economical than a communicative translation, unless, for the latter, the next is
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