27
poorly written.) In general, a semantic translation is written at the author's linguistic
level, a communicative at the readership's. Semantic translation is used for
expressive texts, communicative for informative and vocative texts."
(47)
Further, semantic translation is personal and individual; follows the
author's thought process more than his/her intention. Additionally, it tends to over-
translation, to be more specific than the original and to add information. In
comparison to communicative translation, it is more difficult, heavier and more
detailed. On the contrary, communicative translation tends to under-translation and
uses more general expressions in certain difficult passages. Communicative
translation is simpler, clearer and more adaptable to the original text (Knittlová et al.
10). A semantic translation is usually worse than its original, while a communicative
translation is often better (Newmark 48).
4.2 Equivalent effect
Equivalent effect (also called "equivalent response" principle or
"dynamic equivalence"
9
) is generally considered to be the overriding purpose of any
translation. To achieve equivalent effect means to produce the same effect on the
readers of the translation as on the readers of the original. Nevertheless, there are
cases in which this is not possible, e.g. if the purpose of the source language text is to
affect and the target language translation to inform or vice versa; if there is a
considerable cultural gap between the two texts. Comparing communicative and
semantic translation, the first one is more likely to create equivalent effect because it
is set at the reader's level of language and knowledge, while the latter often fails
doing so as it is set at the writer's level. In the communicative translation of vocative
texts
10
the equivalent effect is essential. Moreover, it is the criterion by which the
9 According E. A. Nida (Newmark 48)
10 Texts with vocative function, e.g. texts which invite the readership to act, think or feel in the way
intended by the text. The typical vocative texts: notices, instructions, publicity, propaganda,
persuasive writing, popular fiction. (Newmark 41)
28
effectiveness and the value of the translation are assessed (Newmark 49).
However, it is not always possible to achieve the equivalent effect. In
fact, the more cultural the original text is, the more difficult is to create it unless the
reader is imaginative, sensitive or have certain knowledge of source language
culture: "There is no need to discuss again the propriety of 'converting' Keats'
'Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness' or Shakespeare's 'Shall I compare thee to a
summer's day?' into languages of countries where the autumns and summers are
unpleasant" (Newmark 49). Jiří Levý suggests using explanation or indication when
some aspects of the original are incommunicable through common devices.
Nevertheless, these should not be used arbitrarily. As he reminds, explanation is
suitable if the reader of the translation misses something what was included in the
text for the reader of the original. On the other hand, indication should be used if
interpreting is not possible; this occur when the original contains elements of another
language (e.g. French in Tolstoy's War and Peace) or local dialect
11
. For the first case
Levý suggests translating only parts significant for understanding the meaning into
the target language, while less important parts (e.g. greetings or short answers)
would be kept the same as in the original (Levý 124 - 127).
4.3 Translation criticism
"Translation criticism is an essential link between translation theory and its
practice; it is also an enjoyable and instructive exercise, particularly if you are
criticising someone else's translation or, even better, two or more translations of the
same text."
(Newmark 184)
Translation criticism offers lots of aspects according to which a
translation can be assessed. The greatest challenge of translation criticism is to state
one's own principles and to accept the translator's principles even if he/she is reacting
11 Translating dialects is discussed in chapter 4.4
29
against or following them (Newmark 187).
Newmark also suggests a plan of translation criticism. This plan
includes five topics. The first of them is text analysis; this stage requires a brief
analysis of the original text and stressing its intentions and functional aspects. In the
text analysis one may include a statement of the author's purpose, his attitude
towards the topic as well as characterization of the readership. It is recommended to
briefly state the topic or themes, but one should not simply retell the plot (186).
Secondly, there is a topic aimed at the translator's purpose, i.e. its
attempt is to describe the translator's point of view. During working on this stage of
translation criticism one may find out interesting points about the translator's work.
For example, one can come to conclusion that the translator omitted certain parts of
the original or that he/she replaced simple sentences with colloquial and idiomatic
phrases in order to make the text livelier. Generally speaking, translations tend to be
under-translations; that means that they are less detailed than the original. The point
of interpreting the translator's intentions is not to criticise, but rather to try to
understand why he has used these concrete procedures (Newmark 186-187).
Thirdly, after this stage of translation criticism comes comparing the
translation with the original. This comparison is the main goal of the criticism, so it
should have a certain structure; it would be inappropriate to simply put one's notes in
the order arbitrarily. Instead of it, these notes should be grouped selectively
according to their common characteristics. The aim of this part is to discuss
problems of the translation; therefore, one is not supposed to simply suggest a better
variant of a particular translated item. Moreover, it has to be selective because there
are too many points in every translation which would allow one to justify his/her
preferred version (Newmark 188).
Fourthly, the translation's referential and pragmatic accuracy is
evaluated. Firstly, by the translator's standards, i.e. by considering whether the
translation is successful in its own terms and after that by one's own standards of
referential and pragmatic accuracy. It is necessary to avoid criticising the translator
because of ignoring those translation principles which were not established in the
time of the translating. Further, the translation should be assessed also as a piece of