INTRODUCTION: SECTION ONE
xxi
William James plunged into these swirling currents when he
became a student at Agassiz’s Lawrence Scientific School, but he
promptly came up on the side of the Darwinians around the Harvard
botanist Asa Gray, intimate of Darwin’s inner circle.
17
Gray first
introduced the theory of natural selection into American science a
month before publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species. And he could
count a few of the Harvard faculty already on his side, including
Charles William Eliot, James’s chemistry professor, and Chauncey
Wright, a part-time employee at the Harvard College Observatory
who studied the mathematical arrangement of leaves for Gray and
fancied himself the philosopher at the college pump.
Wright had written an essay fusing the utilitarianism of Mill with
the evolutionary theory of Darwin that had so impressed Darwin
that he reproduced it in England at his own expense and then
promptly wrote to Wright, asking if he had any time, to write next
about the influence of natural selection on language. The result was
Wright’s now famous essay “The Evolution of Self Consciousness,”
which inspired William James to take up the study of consciousness
in a Darwinian context just when everyone else was focussing ex-
clusively on plants and animals.
18
These ideas formed the content
of James’s very first professional publications in science, and would
later ground James’s study of spirituality within the experience of
the individual.
In 1861, William James also met Charles Sanders Peirce [pron.
“purse”] for the first time, the irascible and eccentric son of Benjamin
Peirce, a close colleague of Agassiz’s and head of the Harvard
College Observatory.
19
Benjamin Peirce had taught his son a great
deal about the sciences at an early age and reared son Charles as a
kind of child prodigy, but the reality was that the boy had lifelong
emotional problems as a result.
William James befriended Peirce, and Peirce, in turn, intro-
duced James to the British Empiricists, the logic of science, and the
17
Dupree, A. Hunter, Asa Gray, American botanist, friend of Darwin. Johns Hopkins
Paperbacks ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988; Darwin, Charles,
On the origin
of the species by means of natural selection, or, The preservation of favoured races in the struggle
for life. London: John Murray, 1859.
18
Wiener, Philip P. Evolution and the founders of pragmatism; with a foreword by John
Dewey. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1949.
19
Brent, Joseph. Charles Sanders Peirce: A life. Rev. and enl. ed., Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana
University Press, 1998.
xxii
INTRODUCTION: SECTION ONE
literature on experimental psychophysics. The two soon became
fast friends, so that when William traveled to the Amazon on
the Thayer expedition with Agassiz in 1865, Peirce would take a
break from studying his Kant for four hours a day by going over
and visiting with Henry James Sr., who, in a largely unnamable
way, adopted him as a spiritual son into the James family. Henry
James, Sr., at the time, was writing prolifically about Swedenborg’s
ideas. As a result, Peirce, who had known about the works of the
Swedish scientist before, began reading Swedenborg more ernestly.
He reviewed Henry James Sr.’s books when they were published,
and insofar as James the Elder had informally founded his own
religious sect, Peirce, without openly announcing it, was among the
few who became an ardent disciple.
20
William James, meanwhile, was still struggling to find a vocation.
There was a plan among his friends to get him to return to paint-
ing when he went sketching with George Inness on Mt. Desert
Island in 1863. William had transferred to Harvard Medical
School in 1864, the year his father moved the family from New
York to Boston, thinking he might become a physician, or at least
qualify as a knowledgeable patient in an asylum. His trip to the
Amazon in 1865 was a test to see if he could be a naturalist. In
all this he was struggling to become a scientist, although he was
ultimately unable to reconcile himself to the anti-metaphysical
and anti-religious bent of the extreme positivists such as Wright.
He did earn the MD in 1869, but took it as something of a non-
sequitor, as he felt too weak and unsure of himself to even consider
opening a practice.
The result was that William James also plunged into a near-
suicidal depression in 1869. It took him several years to recover, and
he did this by reading the French Catholic philosopher, Renouvier,
on the will; the British poet Coleridge on the limits of the
scientific mind-set, and finally, James himself declared, “by believ-
ing to believe in free-will.” In other words, he willed to believe
that the mind is a self-active agent, capable of altering material
circumstances by the exercise of conscious intention. Later, in The
Varieties, James gave an account of his near-suicidal breakdown
20
Taylor, E. I., Peirce and Swedenborg, Studia Swedenborgiana. l986, 6:1, 25–5l, a point
confirmed by Max Fisch (personal communication).