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T H E M E
N e w R e l i g i o u s M o v e m e n t s
I I A S N E W S L E T T E R # 4 7 S p r i n g 0 0 8
SGI meeting in Sao Paolo,
Brazil.
Courtesy of Editora Brasil
Seikyo.
A Japanese new religion
in the age of globalisation:
the role of leadership within the neo-Buddhist Soka Gakkai
Ronan Pereira argues that a charismatic and strategically smart leadership is the key for a new religious
movement to survive not just in its original society but elsewhere. His case in point is Daisaku Ikeda who, for
good or bad, became the face of the neo-Buddhist NRM Soka Gakkai International,(SGI). He masterminded
its transformation from a parochial, lay Buddhist organisation into a major international religious movement
that doubles as a non-governmental organisation.
Ronan Alves Pereira
The world witnessed a boom of new religious movements (NRMs) in the
past 50 years. In countries with basic democratic liberties that facilitated
the formation of a ‘religious market’
1
, NRMs compete not only with their
national counterparts but also with a growing number of foreign groups
from every religious stream. Therefore, after passing this first test and
surviving in its original society, a NRM must possess certain features and
conditions in order to survive elsewhere.
In truth, the fate of a religious group in an alien society is dependent on a
plethora of elements such as the deregulation of religion
2
and demand for
new religious alternatives in the host society, a choice between becoming
an ethnic religion perpetuated by a minority group or a universal move-
ment, and so on. However, for an NRM to become a global cultural sys-
tem, a key role is played by its leadership. More than just engaging in
prolific discourse and having the good intention to be successful, a leader
must also be a good strategist and have that charismatic flame to invig-
orate his or her followers, giving them a sense of purpose, and enlisting
them to dedicate themselves to the ‘noble cause of spreading the good
news’. Charismatic appeal, strategic vision, and managerial ability are just
some of the skills needed in the portfolio of the leader of a NRM aspiring
to a global reach.
In the following section I will depict and discuss the case of one of the
most controversial religious leaders of modern Japan, yet one whose
accomplishments are unsurpassed among Japanese NRMs. Daisaku
Ikeda (born 1928) is the president of Soka Gakkai International (SGI),
a neo-Buddhist movement that claims to have a presence in some 190
countries and territories (although having only 82 registered constituent
organisations), with more than 12 million members.
The ordeals of a rising movement
Since its foundation in the 1930s by the primary school teacher and edu-
cational philosopher, Tsunesaburô Makiguchi (1871-1944), it has been a
long and turbulent road for Sôka Gakkai(SG) in terms of attaining success
in the global scene. During World War Two, SG almost disappeared due to
governmental repression and the imprisonment of its leaders, which led
to Makiguchi’s death while in prison. His disciple, Jôsei Toda (1900-1958)
was initially reluctant, but took over the leading position to reorganise
this lay organisation affiliated with Nichiren Shôshû (‘Orthodox Sect of
Nichiren Buddhism’) by deemphasising study and education in favour of
the unconditional and exclusive practice of Nichiren’s teachings. Thus, in
less than a decade, the small study group became a truly mass movement
with inroads into politics. Because of its aggressive conversion campaign,
massive rallies and festivals, and an organisational structure inspired by
the military, SG gained a very negative reputation as a cult-like, fundamen-
talist, fascist and violent group.
In 1960, Daisaku Ikeda became the third president of SG at the age of 32.
Although he kept his mentor’s policy of ‘destroying the evil religious’
3
and
expanding the movement at any cost, eventually Ikeda faced the com-
mon dilemma of anti-establishment movements: it became clear that the
movement could not succeed unless it compromised and accommodated
to the surrounding society. Therefore, gradually he deemphasised SG’s
forceful conversion campaigns and expanded the movement’s cultural
and educational activities.
In 1991, Soka Gakkai members were excommunicated from Nichiren
Shôshû. While this freed the organisation from a traditional and limiting
priesthood, at the same time it provoked a crisis of legitimacy. Previously,
the two organisations lived in a symbiotic relationship that was mutually
beneficial: the Nichiren Shôshû priesthood claimed to be guardians of the
T H E M E
N e w R e l i g i o u s M o v e m e n t s
Cultural convention of Brazil-
SGI. Courtesy of Editora Brasil
Seikyo.
I I A S N E W S L E T T E R # 4 7 S p r i n g 0 0 8
doctrinaire and ritual orthodoxy taught by the 13
th
century monk Nichiren.
While benefitting from the services of this authoritative and legitimating
tradition, SGI members had sole responsibility for secular matters such
as national and international conversion campaigns, fundraising to build
temples, publications, cultural and political activities.
After the split between Nichiren Shôshû and SG, both groups entered
into a legal battle over assets and into competition for members. The
dispute also exposed the opposing leaders to accusations of sexual
deviation, tax evasion, greed for money and power and so on. If Nichiren
Shôshû lost most of it adepts to its lay organisation, SG ended up with a
major problem: the source of its sacred object (i.e., the gohonzon or man-
dala inscribed by Nichiren) was in the safekeeping of Nichiren Shôshû.
Therefore, for a while new SG members had no way of obtaining a copy
of Nichiren’s mandala. The solution came two years later, in 1993, when
the chief reverend of a former Nichiren Shôshû temple started offering SG
members a copy of an alternative mandala transcribed by the 26
th
High
Priest, Nichikan Shônin.
Cohesion around Master Ikeda
In the period following the conflict with the priesthood, Ikeda added to
his status of president of the organisation that of teacher and spiritual
master for Soka Gakkai members
4
. In order to guarantee internal cohe-
sion under the leadership of Ikeda, some ideological principles and slo-
gans were reinforced, such as shitei-funi (unity of master and disciple) and
itai-dôshin (different bodies united in mind and faith). In his writings and
speeches, Ikeda frequently affirms that SG members need to conduct the
master-disciple relationship in the same way as between Nichiren and his
disciples, and more recently between the founder, Makiguchi and his suc-
cessor, Toda, than between Toda and Ikeda himself. Ikeda endeavours to
nurture this relationship in many ways. For instance, there is no SG event,
inauguration, anniversary of a group, or New Year’s publication without a
note from Master Ikeda written especially for that special event. Thus, in
contrast to the opinion of the sceptical Japanese media and critical, rival
religious leaders, a member or a sympathiser sees Ikeda as a great leader
and mentor who is tireless in spreading the teachings of Nichiren and
advancing the cause of world peace.
There is no doubt that Ikeda constitutes a classic case of a charismatic
leader who invigorates his followers and inspires them to dedicate them-
selves enthusiastically to the common cause. In doing so he plays a similar
role to that of business leaders in managing their organisations through
appeals to their corporate cultures. Among other qualities, a good busi-
ness leader is expected to be a good team-builder, to get the best from
his/her human capital and be a good motivator, to create a positive work-
ing environment. In these matters, Ikeda is an expert.
Ikeda: organiser and strategist
In order to sustain his leadership as a visionary with a higher purpose,
Ikeda launched in 1958 the project ‘Seven Bells’ as a working plan for Soka
Gakkai in the following 21 years, divided into three periods of seven years.
This project was followed by two similar ones, similarly divided into cycles
and aimed at developing and propagating the movement. These cycles
included specific goals such as achieving a certain number of conversions
and the inauguration of branches and culture centres within a designated
period of time. They served as motivational drives that kept the movement
focused and enlisted the militant energy of members.
Another high-profile initiative of Ikeda was the formation of the political
party Kômeitô (Clean Government Party) which has become one of the
main political forces in Japan. While maintaining his role as a great strat-
egist and organiser, he also created a full-scale education system from
kindergarten to university, art museums, and a host of other cultural, edu-
cational, and environmental institutions. In 1975, Ikeda established the
‘Soka Gakkai International’ (SGI) to oversee SG’s affiliated chapters all
over the world. In the following decade, SGI became a non-governmental
organisation (NGO) member of the United Nations.
Ikeda has also been a prolific writer with more than one hundred works,
ranging from Buddhist philosophy to dialogue with outstanding person-
alities, poetry, children’s stories and photographic collections. His works
have been translated and published in more than 30 languages, by the
organisation and commercially. Furthermore, Ikeda has been awarded
over 200 academic honours and has received the title of honorary citizen
from more than 500 cities and countries around the world.
Since 1960, Ikeda has travelled to every continent to propagate Soka
Gakkai and has established national and international institutions that
have enhanced the movement’s visibility and demonstrate its aim to exert
influence over both local societies and matters of global concern. He
meets continuously with internationally acclaimed writers, artists, politi-
cians, scholars, scientists and others. Such intense activity in Japan as
well in the global scene can be interpreted as a way of changing his former
image of a fundamentalist militant and ambitious political-religious leader
into that of a Buddhist thinker, spiritual master for humanity, peace build-
er, and educator.
From ‘human revolution’ to world peace
Similarly to some other religious groups in the Nichiren tradition, SGI
claims to be the sole heir of their original patron, Nichiren, from whom
it acquired its self-assertiveness, fighting spirit, determination, and
active militancy. Its leadership depicts the organisation as ‘a lay move-
ment among ordinary people’, destined to transform the world. The key
to reaching this goal is the catch-phrase and ‘philosophy of self-reform’
created by Jôsei Toda called ‘human revolution’ (ningen kakumei). This
stands for the psychological and cultural reform of a person’s life or way
of life that bears the potential to transform communities and institutional
structures, and eventually change the entire world for the better. In other
words, ‘human revolution’ is the equivalent of the traditional Buddhist
concept of enlightenment (satori). SGI members are encouraged to make
an effort to improve their own lives and reveal their human potential
through the chanting of the mantra Nam-myôhô-rengekyô (‘Devotion to
the mystic law of the Lotus Sutra’). Thus, the degree of success of the
human revolution of SGI members is expected to decide the future of the
movement and, ultimately, of Nichiren Buddhism. From their perspective,
world peace and even the future of humankind depends on the global
expansion of the SGI movement and its social activism, or at least the
concerted effort of SGI and like-minded people and institutions. Then the
ideal future of planetary society will be conducted by the United Nations
but guided by the principles of SGI’s version of Nichiren Buddhism. This
is SGI’s recipe for reaching the utopia of the ‘Third Civilization’ through
‘human revolution’.
SGI is an exemplary movement of ‘inner-worldly asceticism’. Its philoso-
phy is to be present in society and try to change it from within. There is
no code for dressing, diet or particular lifestyle for members. From the
outside, members look like regular members of their societies but pri-
vately they keep their practice of recitation of the mantra and faith in the
gohonzon. SGI changes members’ participation in their culture of birth
and unites them around the world, in a global SGI cultural system in a
more invisible way - in the way people think and understand reality in
terms of karma, of the mystical relationship with the gohonzon, Nichiren
and Ikeda. SGI members tend to understand the tragedies in the world
(such as wars, terrorism, the tsunami) in terms of the concept of mappo
(the final days when the practice of the Dharma (law) degenerates). Their
praxis is also oriented by its characteristic as an NGO dedicated to edu-
cation, peace, environment, culture; whenever they participate in society
or promote a public event, these events tend to be framed by a focus on
these four areas.
The case of SGI not only illustrates the role of leadership in transforming
a NRM into a global cultural system, but also reveals some changes in the
nature of religion in the contemporary world. For instance, it illuminates
the struggle of religion to survive in the era of globalisation in which new
rival movements are being proliferated, just as the traditional roles of reli-
gion has been appropriated by governmental agencies, NGOs, and liberal
professionals, particularly therapists. In this regard, SGI has been suc-
cessful as it maintains the structures and practices of a religious institu-
tion while displaying the dynamics of a NGO. This means that it sustains
a strategy of dual speech, internally emphasising its ritual practice and its
religious mission while externally focusing on its secular or ‘secularised
religious’ performance.
Ronan Alves Pereira
Professor of Japanese Studies,
University of Brasilia
ronan_pereira@hotmail.com
Notes:
1 A situation where there is no state-run or monopolistic-church which controls
religious affairs and people can freely choose which faith to follow and prac-
tice. In other words, a ‘religious market’ is one in which different religious
traditions or denominations compete to each other for membership.
2 The change or suspension of laws and legal hindrances that make it difficult
if not impossible for all religions to exist in a specific society.
3 Based on Nichiren’s philosophy that all religions different from his own were
‘evil’ and heretic.
4 Before the excommunication in 1991, Ikeda was officially the president of SG.
The priesthood held the mystical aura of bearers of tradition, of legitimacy, the
mystical link between the members and the gohonzon. After the split, Ikeda
kept the bureaucratic title, while enlarged his role as spiritual master and
guide for SG members.